Project Number: LNE89-12 (USDA-SARE Program)
Principal Investigators: Mary Wiedenhoeft and Barbara A. Barton
Performing Institution: University of Maine

The major costs of Livestock operations in the Northeast are the purchase, production, and handling of feed. It is a known fact that grazing offers the most economical form of feed acquisition on the majority of the farms. By growing and utilizing greater quantities of locally produced, high quality forages, livestock production costs can be reduced without compromising productivity, thus increasing on-farm sustainability.

In this region, the grazing season is limited to approximately six months with traditional mixed grass-legume pastures. Herbage growth, however, is not always consistent within this time frame and is often characterized by dormant, "slump" periods.

Recently, Brassicas have been promotes as alternate crops that can supply additional or supplemental forage, thus extending the grazing season. When integrated into existing forage systems, Brassica crops have the potential to reduce: 1) the amount of purchased concentrates, 2) stored winter forage that needs to be produced or purchased, 3) harvesting costs and labor by allowing the animals to harvest the forage, and 4) costs and labor associated with manure disposal.

There is ample opportunity for grassland improvement using no-till techniques throughout the Northeast in order to save time, labor, and reduce soil erosion. Many of the permanent pastures in the region are located on steep and/or rocky land which prohibits improvement via conventional seeded preparation. Herbicide use is often assumed to be a prerequisite in no-till sod-seeding. Consequently, there is a need to develop methods that reduce or eliminate herbicide use.

Tyfon, a Chinese cabbage-turnip hybrid, recently has gained considerable attention for use as a pasture crop in commercial livestock operations. However, large-scale adoption of Tyfon as a livestock feed has been slow because of the lack of information on feeding management and utilization of this crop. To integrate Tyfon into existing forage systems in the Northeast, farmers need additional information on the nutritional limitations of this crop and its effects on animal production and economic profitability. Environmentally sound practices must also be developed for crop production and erosion control.

A series of experiments at research sites and on farms in Maine and Connecticut are planned to investigate each of these objectives and provide information to livestock producers in the Northeast. Overall, a reduction in off-farm purchased inputs, particularly for concentrate feeds, is a realistic, obtainable goal of the project within the first year. Reductions in herbicide inputs and soil erosion will also add to improved on-farm sustainability of Northeast farms that can integrate Brassicas into their present forage system.

Published Abstracts:

Cassisda, K.A., B.A. Barton, M.H. Wiedenhoeft, R.L. Hough and A.C. Thompson, Jr. 1992. Effects of hay supplememtnation on feed intake and apparent digestiblity of tyfon diets for lambs. J. Animal Sci. 70 (Suppl.1):304 (abstr.).

printable PDF version

The problem

Grazing enterprise profitability is greatly influenced by the plant/ animal relationship. However, grazing managements optimizing this relationship in view of increase animal performance are still lacking.

Significant increments in herbage dry matter and sugar concentrations occur from dawn to dusk. Such increments promote pasture digestibility and energy concentration, and consequently nutritive value as the day progresses.

Optimizing grazing management

Cattle decisions such as “when” to begin and “how” to distribute their meals determine how they distribute feeding time to meet nutrient requirements. Cattle show a daily frequency of four or five major meals with the longer and more intense meals occurring in late in the afternoon and early in the evening.

Therefore, if our objective is to improve animal performance and efficiently use the nutrient supplied by pasture, it may be advantageous to stimulate cattle to graze longer and more intensively during dusk.

Studies conducted in Argentina (National University of La Plata) and University of Arkansas show that linking the natural grazing pattern with the fluctuations in pasture nutritive value through timing (AM vs. PM) of the fresh pasture allocation (strip-grazing) modifies the frequency, intensity and distribution of meals, altering the timing of
pasture and therefore nutrient intake.

• Afternoon pasture allocation (3:00 PM vs. 7:00 AM) caused beef heifers to graze longer (Figure 2) and eat more pasture late into the afternoon and early in the evening, when pasture had the highest quality.

• Afternoon pasture allocation led to greater daily weight gains (0.73 lb) and changes in body condition score (0.0145 pts.) than heifers turned into the new pasture during the morning.

These results are supported by:

• A greater nutrient intake when pasture has better nutritive value, less fiber and more sugar, digestibility and energy.

• A reduction in pasture intake during the morning, which generate “hunger” at the time they enter to the new pasture, and stimulates pasture consumption in the evening.

Implications

• PM grazing combines the better quality of pasture with the time of day when animals want to eat more. It is a win-win situation.

• A simple change in timing of pasture allocation may result in better animal performances for no additional cost.

• This grazing management emerges as an interesting tool for the graziers of the northeastern US.

One of the best: eOrganic. This project is sponsored by the USDA and Oregon State, and the land grant universities, and covers all aspects of organic agriculture. eOrganic posts articles, videos and webinars on very nearly any topic you can think of.

eOrganic is part of the larger eXtension system, a major online initiative from Cooperative Extension. This site covers all sorts of agricultural topics.

Where else do you go for information? When you have an agricultural question, or simply want to see what others are doing, where online do you look?

Printable version

Background

Decades of plowing have depleted organic carbon stocks in many agricultural soils. Conversion of plowed fields to pasture has the potential to reverse this process, recapturing organic matter that was lost under more intensive cropping systems. Systems are being put into place to provide payments for practices that increase soil carbon. Pastures in the northeastern USA are highly productive and could act as significant sinks for carbon dioxide. However, such pastures have relatively high shoot relative to root growth, the majority of which is removed as hay or consumed by grazing animals. In addition, the ability of pastures to sequester carbon dioxide decreases over time as previously depleted stocks are replenished and the soil returns to equilibrium conditions.

Important Findings

We have monitored carbon dioxide (CO2) gains and losses from two fields in Central Pennsylvania that have been managed as pastures for at least 40 years.

• When biomass removal as hay or by grazing was taken into account, the pastures experienced a net loss to the atmosphere of about 1.4 ton CO2 acre-1 year-1 (positive values represent loss to the atmosphere while negative values represent uptake by the pastures).
• Returning manure from the hay that was consumed off site would have partially replenished the lost carbon, but the pastures would have still experienced a net loss of CO2.
• Heavy utilization of the biomass produced on these mature pastures prevented them from acting as carbon sinks.

Application of Results

Although good management practices following conversion to pastures can increase soil carbon sequestration, land managers must realize that limits exist to the amount of carbon that can be stored. Mature pastures and those that are heavily utilized, either by haying or grazing, can not be counted on to continuously accumulate soil carbon.

Printable version

Background

Reduced forage production on pastures during periods of summer drought presets a significant risk to producers who are constantly searching for ways to reduce that risk. Considerable research suggests that increasing the number of species in pasture mixtures can increase and stabilize productivity under stressful conditions. Benefits from increased species diversity are often greatest under harsh environmental conditions and have been associated with several factors including:

• Improved utilization of scarce resources;
• Facilitation of the growth and survival of one or more species by a companion species;
• An increased probability of including the most productive species for a given environment

Important Findings

• Including more than two species in pasture mixtures increased yield under drought conditions but not when rainfall was adequate.
• Photosynthesis increased with increasing species number during the summer and fall when moisture was limited but not in the spring when drought stress was not present.
• Roots were distributed deeper in the soil profile with increasing species richness, thus improving access to deep soil moisture.
• Including species in pasture mixtures that exhibited specific desired attributes was more important in determining forage yield than was the actural number of species. All mixtures tended to lose species over time.

Practical Application of Results

Forage production during periods of summer drought can be increased by including additional species in the pasture mixture, especially if those species have desirable attributes such as improved water use efficiency or deep root systems. However, many relatively drought-tolerant species such as chicory or red clover are relatively short lived and will probably require periodic reestablishment for long-term realization of the benefits they can provide to pastures.

Printable version

Introduction: Substantial nitrogen (N) losses from volatilization, leaching, and denitrification occur from manure deposited by grazing animals. The amount of loss is related to the weather conditions, soil type, plant canopy, and many other factors. An extensive literature review was conducted to summarize and quantify typical N losses from pastures.

Results: Most of the N excreted on pasture (55 to 75%) is in urine where higher levels occur with overfeeding of protein. Urinary N (urea) is rapidly hydrolyzed to form ammonia. Ammonia volatilization can be very high, but rapid absorption of the urine into the soil surface will reduce this loss. Reported losses vary from 5 to 66% of the urine N with higher losses under hot, dry conditions. Fecal N is in a more stable organic form where only 5% is volatilized. Average total loss is about 10% of the excreted N. Ammonia emission is greatest during and immediately after a grazing event. Rain, poor drying conditions, and low wind all help reduce this emission rate.

Leaching loss of N can be much higher under grazing than occurs with spread manures. Nitrogen concentrations under a urine patch are very high, equivalent to an application rate of 300 to 1,000 lb N/acre. Much of this N is in excess of crop needs and is leached through the soil profile. Reported loss ranges from about 10 to 60% of the urinary N. Factors affecting this loss are soil type or texture, rainfall following deposition, and the time of the year.

Urine N deposited in the spring is more likely to be used by a growing crop and thus provides about half the loss of that deposited in the fall. Leaching loss from fecal N is small, about 2% of that deposited. Combined leaching losses are 10 to 30% of the total N excreted on the pasture. Runoff loss also occurs from pastures, but this loss is normally small averaging 1% or less of the N deposited. On poorly drained soils though, runoff loss may be much greater with less leaching loss.

Denitrification loss from pastures can also be substantial, particularly under urine deposits. Reported losses range from 5 to 30% of the applied urine N. Most of this loss appears to be in the environmentally benign form of N2, but some portion will be in the form of N2O, a potent greenhouse gas. Available data indicates that less than 8% of the applied N will be lost as N2O with a typical loss around 2%.

Implication:Management can reduce N loss from grazing animals. A practical step that should always be considered is to feed supplemental protein feeds efficiently, and thus reduce urinary N excretion. Overstocking of animals along with a large import of forage and other supplemental feeds should be avoided. Movement of watering and supplemental feeding areas will improve nutrient distribution, thus increasing plant uptake and reducing loss.

Volatile loss may be reduced by irrigating the paddock immediately after grazing to wash the urine N into the sod. Leaching loss can be reduced by avoiding grazing in the late autumn or winter when plant uptake of N is low. Removing the autumn growth through silage harvest can also help reduce the accumulation of excess soil nitrate, which at this time of the year will likely be lost by leaching. Less use of N fertilizer with greater use of clover and other legumes to supply needed crop N can also reduce soil N levels and leaching loss.

There is a vacuum of any rigorous, quantified studies on the costs of producing organic milk in the United States despite growth and interest in the farming activity. The situation is particularly acute in the Northeast and upper Midwest where there is a small but rapidly growing organic dairy sector. Organic milk production has been the fastest growing agricultural sector in New England, with Vermont experiencing growth from just 2 certified organic farms in 1993 to more than 70 today. Maine has seen similar growth, increasing from 25 farms in 1997 to 63 certified organic dairy farms today. This study reports average production costs and returns for 2004 from a sample of thirty organic dairy farms (thirteen from Vermont and seventeen from Maine). It is important to emphasize that these results are indicative of economic conditions in 2004 and do not reflect current production conditions1. Overall, we find that the average organic dairy operation was not profitable in 2004. The average rate of return on farm assets was -2.9%.

Full report

The webinar is free and open to the public but pre-registration is required.

Learn more about the webinar (this where the recording will be posted too).

Webinar description:

As certified organic grain prices continue to increase, dairy farmers are interested in finding ways to maintain or improve milk production while reducing feed costs. In the quest to find lower-cost alternatives, there has been increased interest in supplementing pasture-based livestock diets with products like molasses and flaxseed. Molasses can be a source of energy and trace minerals. Flaxseed can also be a source of energy; in addition it is high in omega-3 fatty acids, a plus for animals and humans alike. In this webinar, Dr. Kathy Soder will present results of recent research she and her team have conducted on molasses and flaxseed feeding.

Dr. Soder is an animal scientist at the USDA Agricultural Research Service’s (ARS) Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit in University Park, Pennsylvania. There, she conducts a variety of research projects to evaluate the effects of diverse pasture systems on grazing behavior of ruminants, and how farmers can use these systems to optimize forage and animal productivity. The flaxseed feeding trials are part of a USDA-funded project, “Assisting Organic Dairy Producers to Meet the Demands of New and Emerging Milk Markets.”

Find out more about upcoming and archived eOrganic webinars.

Many livestock producers have intensified management of pastures in the Northeast and need assessment and monitoring tools to determine how management has influenced pastures. The Pasture Condition Score (PCS) system, developed by the NRCS, was used to assess 108 pastures on 31 farms across the Northeast. We examined the applicability of the system to identify potential problems with its uses and obtain a snapshot of pastureland status.

None of the pastures evaluated scored in the lowest category (PCS < 15), and only a few pastures scored in the highest category (PCS >45). More than 40% of the pastures scored in the category where only minor changes to management were needed (PCS = 36-45) and another 44% fell into the category where some improvements were needed (PCS = 26-35). About 15% of pastures scored 16-25, indicating immediate management changes were needed.

The indicator “percent legume” scored lowest of all the indicators. The low rating for legume content suggests that producers should focus management on establishing and maintaining legumes, which contribute valuable N and high quality forage to the pasture system.

Pasture condition score was negatively related to plant species richness. Pastures with the highest species richness generally had many weedy species. This indicates that focusing on increasing the number of species in a pasture without regard to the species composition may not be wise.

The PCS system was readily implemented on most pastures. Producers would benefit by observing individual pasture condition indicators at regular intervals to track trends and inform management decisions.

Full research paper available online
Pasture Condition Score worksheet

Hi Everyone,

Here is the hot link to the ARS Science Magazine. There is an article on pages 18 and 19 entitled “A Modeling Milestone for Soil Phosphorus Management” that should be of particular interest to members of the Northeast Pasture Consortium. If you want to see the full magazine click on the hot link. This will take you to the ARS website. Then click on the magazine cover. Depending on your internet connection this may take several seconds for the magazine to appear on your screen. To flip pages on the screen go to the bottom of the first page and click on the arrow at the lower right hand corner. Thereafter click either at the lower right hand corner of the magazine to advance forward in the magazine or click at the lower left hand corner to go back in the magazine. Sort of like using an I-pad except you use a mouse on a PC as old as mine. The electronic magazine also has hot links to go elsewhere, such as downloading the soil phosphorus model.